Social structure

Introduction Culture harmonizes mickle behavior and at the same time creates barriers between different groups. Donnan and Wilson (1999) fuddle argued that borders of cultures and identities make up the least studied and understood phenomena of international borders and admit that borders atomic number 18 perpetually descriptions since they are illogical constructions based on cultural convention. Similarly, most of the organizations stir the diverse consequences of culture in our modern ball-shapedizing world the cooperation of psyches, groups, and organizations is a springy issue for any social entity and largely depends on their cultural background. identity element is an stead that emphasizes the importance of individual oer the group identity and collectivism is the diametral tendency that emphasizes the importance of we identity over I identity (Hofstede, 1980). Individualism VS collectivism Just as occidental railway linees have intensified their efforts to take i n from Asian organizations, so too has there been a rise in research on cross-cultural differences between the two regions. Asian and Western cultures have been distinguished along a variety of characteristics (Cohen & deoxyadenosine monophosphate Nisbett, 1994 Triandis, 1994).However, it is the balance of individualism and collectivism that has received the most trouble by psychologists specializing in cross-cultural research. Cultural determine of individualism and collectivism differ in their relative emphasis on independence vs. interdependence with nonpareils group (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). In laissez-faire(a) cultures, plurality are viewed as independent and possessing a unique pattern of traits that distinguish them from other population (Markus & Kitayama, 1994).In contrast to such independence and uniqueness, people in state-controlled cultures view the self as inherently interdependent with the group to which they belong. thitherfore, whereas people in indi vidualistic cultures oft give global and generalisation descriptions of themselves (e. g. , I am optimistic), people in collectivistic cultures might ask how they could mayhap describe themselves in the absence of information ab pop a exceptional situation (Bachnik, 1994).To someone from a collectivistic culture, a relatively abstract description of the person can appear prowessificial because it implies that he or she is the same regardless of circumstance of use (Cousins, 1989). adept of the most important consequences of these different views of the self is the degree of conformity that is observed in social settings. A meta-analysis of studies using Aschs (1956) line judgment task suggested that Asians recordd a stronger tendency to conform than Americans (Bond & Smith, 1996). In fact, the very concept of conformity may have different connotations in different cultures.While conformity is often viewed negatively in an individualistic culture, uniqueness can be view ed as a form of deviance and conformity associated with harmony in a more collectivistic culture (Kim & Markus, 1999). Because the persons identity is closely linked to his/her social group in collectivistic cultures, the original goal of the person is not to maintain independence from others, but to publicize the interests of the group (Davidson, Jaccard, Triandis, Morales, & Diaz-Guerrero, 1976). In contrast, most people in individualistic cultures assume that their identity is a direct consequence of their unique traits.Because the norms of individualistic cultures stress being true to ones self and ones unique set of needs and desires (Fiske, Kitayama, Markus, & Nisbett, 1998), the person may be encouraged to resist social pressure if it contradicts his/her own values and preferences. Thus, people in individualistic cultures can be expected to be consistent in their views and maintain them in the face of opposition, while people in collectivistic cultures might consid er the failure to yield to others as rude and inconsiderate.In collectivistic cultures, self-esteem is not derived from characteristic behavior or from calling attention to ones own unique abilities. There is greater emphasis on meeting a shared metre so as to maintain harmony in ones relationship to the group (Wink, 1997). People in collectivistic cultures are therefore not move to stand out from their group by agonistic acts of achievement or even making positive statements about themselves (Kitayama, Markus, & Lieberman, 1995). Instead, there is a tendency toward self improvement motivated by concern for the hygienic being of the larger social group.Whereas members of individualistic cultures touch for special recognition by achieving beyond the norms of the group, collectivists are more motivated to understand the norms for achievement in the particular context so as to meet that standard (Azuma, 1994). Therefore, one might expect groups defined by collectivistic norms to be high in collaboration and achievement of corporal goals, whereas groups with individualistic norms may have greater variability in mathematical process among its individual members. High context to low context cultures In todays business relations, its a bantam world after all.As more companies turn towards global markets, professionals are finding themselves in foreign locales, wheeling and dealing resembling never onward. However, the key to effective conference between countries is an understanding of all(prenominal)(prenominal) others culture, especially a working knowledge of how each familiarity conveys meaning. graduation exercise used by author Edward Hall, the expressions high context and low context are labels denoting inherent cultural differences between societies. High-context and Low-context communication refers to how much speakers hope on things other than words to convey meaning.Hall states that in communication, individuals face legion(predicate) more sensory cues than they are able to fully process. In each culture, members have been supplied with particular proposition filters that allow them to focus only on what society has deemed important. In general, cultures that favour low-context communication will pay more attention to the literal meanings of words than to the context surrounding them. It is important to remember that either individual uses both high-context and low-context communication it is not simply a number of choosing one over the other.Often, the types of relationships we have with others and our circumstances will state the achievement to which we rely more on literal or implied meanings. Novelist Amy Tan describes the differences in cultural communication this way An American business executive may say, Lets make a deal, and the Chinese manager may reply, Is your son kindle in learning about your widget business? Each to his or her own purpose, each with his or her own linguistic path. When individ uals from high-context and low-context cultures collaborate, there are often difficulties that occur during the exchange of information.These problems can be separated into differences concerning solicitude, quantity and quality. For example, employees from high-context cultures like China and France share very specific and coarse information with their in-group members (good friends, families, close co-workers, etc). In comparison, low-context cultures like the United States and Germany prefer to edge communication to smaller, more select groups of people, sharing only that information which is necessary. High-Context CommunicationHall states most(prenominal) of the information is either in the physical context or initialized in the person. ? companionship is situational, relational ? Less is verbally explicit or indite or formally expressed ? More internalized understandings of what is communicated (ex in-jokes) ? Often used in long term, well-established relationships Dec isions and activities focus about personal face-to-face communication, ? often around a central, authoritative figure ? Strong awareness of who is accepted/belongs vs. outsiders crosstieRelationships depend on trust, build up slowly, and are stable. ? How things get do depends on relationships with people and attention to group process. ? Ones identity is rooted in groups (family, culture, work). Interaction ? High use of communicative elements voice tone, facial expression, gestures, and ? pump movement carry significant parts of conversation. ? Verbal message is substantiating one talks around the point and embellishes it. ? Communication is seen as an art form-a way of engaging someone. ? Disagreement is personalized.One is sensitive to conflict expressed in anothers nonverbal communication. Conflict either must be solved before work can progress or must be avoided. scholarship ? Multiple sources of information are used. Thinking is deductive, proceeds from general to spec ific. ? attainment occurs by first observing others as they model or demonstrate and then practicing. ? Groups are preferred for learning and problem solving. ? Accuracy is set. How well something is learned is important. High context cultures are more common in the eastern nations than in western, and in countries with low racial diversity.Cultures where the group is valued over the individual promote group reliance. High context cultures have a strong sense of tradition and history, and change little over time, such as tribal and native societies. For instance, the French assume that the auditor knows everything. Therefore, they may think that Americans think they are stupid because Americans will habitually explain everything to their counterparts. Former president Jimmy Carter understood the importance of high-context communication with his colleagues from Israel and Egypt during the peace talks at Camp David.When Prime Minister dumbfound was about to leave the unsatisfactory negotiations, Carter presented him with pictures of the three heads of state, with the names of each of Begins grandchildren scripted on the photographs. The prime minister repeated the names of his grandchildren out earsplitting as he looked at the pictures, reflecting on the importance of the peace negotiations to his grandchildrens futures. Carter recognised that a high-context reference to future generations would induce the prime minister to drop dead to the negotiations. Low Context CommunicationHall states The mass of information is vested in the explicit codification (message). ? Rule oriented ? More knowledge is public, external, and accessible. ? Shorter duration of communications ? Knowledge is transferable ? Task-centred. Decisions and activities focus around what needs to be done and the particle of responsibilities. Association ? Relationships begin and end quickly. Many people can be inside ones circle circles boundary is not clear. ? Things get done by following procedures and paying attention to the goal. ? Ones identity is rooted in oneself and ones accomplishments.Social complex body part is decentralized responsibility goes further down (is not concentrated at the top). Interaction ? Message is carried more by words than by nonverbal means. ? Verbal message is direct one spells things out exactly. ? Communication is seen as a way of exchanging information, ideas, and opinions. ? Disagreement is depersonalized. One withdraws from conflict with another and gets on with the task. Focus is on rational solutions, not personal ones. Learning ? One source of information is used to develop knowledge. ? Thinking is inductive, proceeds from specific to general.Focus is on detail. ? Learning occurs by following explicit directions and explanations of others. ? An individual penchant is preferred for learning and problem solving. ? Speed is valued. How efficiently something is learned is important. An individual from a high context culture has t o adapt, and/or be accommodated when modify to a low context culture. High context cultures expect small close-knit groups, where professional and personal life is interrelated. Therefore, a high context individual is more likely to ask questions than attempt to work out a solution independently.References Brockner, J. (2003). Unpacking country effects On the need to operationalize the mental determinants of cross-national differences. Research in organizational behavior, (P 333367). Flynn, F, & Chatman, J. (2001). Strong cultures and innovation Oxymoron or opportunity? In S. Cartwright (Ed. ), International handbook of organizational culture and climate. Wink, P. (1997). beyond ethnic differences Contextualizing the influence of ethnicity on individualism and collectivism. Journal of Social Issues, (P 329349).